PATHWAYS TO HELPING PROFESSIONS:
GRADUATE STUDY IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED FIELDS
Dr. James Dalton
Dr. Brett Beck
Department of Psychology, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
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This handout covers some general concerns about careers in clinical psychology and related fields. Clinical psychology and counseling psychology began as separate specialties but have almost merged in focus, while community psychology began as an offshoot of clinical work but increasingly has become a separate field. School psychology has traditionally been separate, but with some overlap with all three other areas. Social work, counseling, and human development are related fields--outside psychology but which many people who were psychology majors as undergraduates enter through graduate school. We omit the field of psychiatry, entered after obtaining a medical degree and psychiatric nursing, entered after obtaining a nursing degree.
We have divided this handout into several sections. First, we invite you to scrutinize your dreams, values, interests and limitations for a career in these fields. Second, we discuss the ever-relevant topic of money and financial aid. Third, we make some recommendations for selecting courses now, as an undergraduate to prepare for graduate admission and study in clinically-related fields. Fourth, we discuss the choice of doctoral vs. master’s-level study along with how to apply to these programs. Finally, we provide a list of further readings and resources, and a list of doctoral and master’s-level programs in these fields that have accepted Bloomsburg University graduates in psychology.
Table of Contents |
SELF-EXAMINATION
Have you ever wondered if you are really "cut out" for graduate school and a career in clinical, counseling or community psychology, or a related field?
If you haven’t, better do it now. The "helping professions" require a persistent commitment to graduate study, and a continuing interest in other people’s problems. Most involve everyday frustrations with clients who fail (indeed, sometimes refuse) to change. They are not for those who like to see frequent, tangible results of their work. They require constantly being alert to emotions--your own and others. They offer high pay to only a few.
However, the helping professions also offer rewards. For those who enjoy working with others while solving problems and discussing feelings, every day of work offers intense involvement. The clients who really turn their lives around, and those who maturely confront real problems that they have previously ignored, offer a sense of accomplishment to the therapist. The pay and working conditions, for holders of graduate degrees, are generally good.
An alternative to direct helping services with individuals and families is a career in organizational and community change. Your focus here would be on changing the settings--workplaces, schools, neighborhoods, community services--that affect the psychological quality of individual lives and the overall incidence of psychological problems. Your impact on individuals’ lives would be indirect but nonetheless can be substantial. These careers often allow more individual creativity in designing one’s work, but require more personal flexibility, and more assertiveness in explaining one’s work to others.
The following are some questions to ask yourself, and to reflect on throughout your education. Discuss them with friends and with at least one faculty member who knows you well.
1. How clear are my concepts of the various helping professions --clinical and counseling psychology, social work, school psychology, and various forms of counseling? Are my ideas accurate? How are they similar or different? Have I read about or talked with role models in each of these areas?
2. What images come to mind when I think about psychotherapy? Counseling? Psychological testing? Community or social change? Are these accurate portrayals of what is really involved? How can I find out about that?
3. To what extent do I want to work directly with people as a counselor/helper, and to what extent do I want to work with schools, workplaces, the legal system, community agencies, or other settings that indirectly but strongly affect the lives of individuals?
4. What are my dreams about my future professional accomplishments and activities? Are these aspirations really mine? Are they limited or directed by the opinions of my peers, family or professors? Am I trimming my dreams too much, to fit my fears about the job market? What values are most reflected in my dreams?
5. What are my limitations? How well do I write? How well do I analyze research, or perform it? How assertive am I in groups? With strangers? With authority figures?
6. Do I function best in a structured situation, where my innovation is limited but role and expectations are clear? Or do I prefer structuring my job my way with creativity but also with the resulting necessity to be assertive in explaining my work to others?
7. What courses have I enjoyed outside psychology? What does that tell me about myself and my interests?
8. What voluntary experiences, jobs, or practicum placements have I enjoyed? What did I enjoy about them? What does that tell me about myself and my interests?
9. What are my experiences with populations that have historically been disadvantaged in American society--women, persons of color, the poor and other groups? How much do I know about their unique needs and strengths? How committed am I to working with them in a way that is truly helpful?
10. In what kind of setting do I want to pursue a graduate degree? Large or small university? Urban, suburban or rural location? In a setting more culturally diverse than Bloomsburg? Are my significant others willing to relocate?
(In general, your education for professional psychology and as a person, will be richer in an environment that is different from your years at Bloomsburg University.)
11. How much do I enjoy reading and performing research?
12. What time commitment, measured in years, and I willing to make for a graduate degree?
WHERE DO I GET THE MONEY?
Many times we hear students say "I can’t afford to go to graduate school, at least not now." THAT’S A MISCONCEPTION! The financial aid situation for graduate students in psychology is completely different, and often better, than for undergraduates. Assignment of financial aid to individual students in psychology graduate programs is largely controlled by the psychology department, although the amount available to the department as a whole is determined by the university. There is less concern with documentation of personal or family income, and more concern with academic potential or performance.
Most psychology programs restrict the number of applicants admitted to a number about equal to the number of assistantships (research or teaching work-study positions) and fellowships (scholarships) available. Unfortunately, this is not true of many Psy.D., M.S.W. and counseling programs, which often have many more students than assistantships and fellowships. These programs are, usually, less likely to offer aid. Psychology programs often try to help each student somehow, even if only partially. Students in doctoral programs often can find limited part-time clinical or community work after finishing a master’s degree.
We strongly recommend that you decide your career interests and aspirations first, and worry about the money afterward. Almost all the B.U. students who have gone to doctoral programs, and many of those in master’s programs, have been given satisfactory financial aid. Apply for financial aid when you apply for admission to a specific program, assertively mention your need for aid if you get an interview, and follow up all possibilities. But, until you have an offer of admission, other things are more important .
COURSE SELECTION
Students are often surprised to learn that graduate schools prefer applicants with a broad, strong background in scientific psychology and in other disciplines over applicants with a background that is specialized in clinically-related courses. This is understandable, however, as what makes you an interesting and persuasive professional practitioner is knowledge of a diversity of information. We encourage all our students to develop a curiosity about a wide range of areas in psychology and other disciplines.
Professional practice requires familiarity with biological and social phenomena as well as psychological, and requires critical-analytical thinking that is developed through a variety of courses, in psychology and upper-level (300-400) courses outside your major.
Psychology Courses
A student interested in clinical or counseling psychology should take psychology courses in these areas: Behavioral Neuroscience, Learning or Cognition, Developmental, Social, Abnormal and History of Psychology, as well as our required courses in Statistics and in Experimental Methods and Applications. (Practicum and research experience will be discussed later). An omission in any of these areas is a weakness that may cost you admission into a graduate program.
Clinical disorders almost always have physiological aspects, and often require drug treatment as well as psychotherapy. Their symptoms may resemble neurological or other organic disorders. Even counseling with relatively healthy populations requires an understanding of neuroscience. Likewise, an understanding of the basic processes of learning or cognition, and of individual development, is required for understanding psychological problems and for designing therapy. Psychotherapy can go very wrong if the therapist misunderstands behavioral, cognitive, and developmental processes of change in the client. The relation of courses in social and abnormal to clinical concerns is easier to understand. Finally, a psychologist is responsible for an integrated knowledge of all major areas of psychology, not just for the areas in which she is most interested. This requires the breadth of background above, and a course in history of psychology as well.
In addition to these fundamental requirements, other courses are desirable but optional. Optional courses should be taken at the upper levels of difficulty (300-400 level) both for your development and to strengthen your graduate school admissibility. Community Psychology, Tests and Measurements, Lab Training in Group Processes, Psychology of Motivation, and Behavior Modification are courses we offer in areas very relevant to clinical/counseling concerns.
Some other things to consider about psychology courses:
Tests and Measures is highly recommended for those considering school psychology.
Advanced Experimental Design is helpful not only in performing a research project but is an overview of the first graduate statistics course, and is very helpful for a doctoral-program admission.
Clinical Psychology is not required for graduate admission in that area, but is an interesting overview of the area.
Theory and Practice of Academic Psychology is an excellent overview of the entire discipline as well as helpful in obtaining a teaching assistantship in grad school.
If you finish with more than about 45 credits in psychology (excluding practicum), you should consider taking upper-level courses in another discipline.
Outside the Major
Undergraduate study is your last chance for years to take a course for no other reason than that it seems interesting--a course in Shakespeare, historical geology, sculpture, anatomy and physiology, pre-Columbian South America, or whatever. The Psychology major is designed to allow that; indeed, we encourage it. Graduate programs are not interested in training psychological technicians who have finished a predetermined list of courses and who know and care little about disciplines outside psychology. That not only makes for better-educated individuals and a more civilized society, but it produces better professional psychologists.
Graduate schools look favorably on applicants who have not only fulfilled general education requirements, and have a strong background in psychology but who have taken upper-level courses outside the major. A minor, or at least an organized progression of courses, in biology, philosophy, sociology or anthropology bears an obvious relation to clinical/counseling career goals. But a minor in something farther afield—perhaps art or chemistry-- indicates intellectual breadth, curiosity, and discipline, all valued qualities in graduate study and in clinical work. For graduate study, a minor in an established discipline is stronger than a career concentration.
Finally, many of our majors have been shut out of their desired career options because of deficiencies in writing and quantitative skills. Rather than take the easy courses that will penalize you later, seek out courses that emphasize and address these skills. Students should work diligently in their composition courses and take mathematics courses at least through college algebra. If your writing skills are weak, take advantage of the tutorial services in the writing lab.
Practicum and Research Experiences
In addition to basic course work, you need to consider both a Practicum (or related clinical experience) and an Independent Study research project. Students seeking admission to clinical/counseling doctoral programs should do both. Those seeking a master’s should perform a practicum or related clinical experience, and strongly consider a research project. Either experience will build critical thinking skills by applying and developing psychological knowledge, and will offer a career-testing opportunity to experience some of the activities psychologists perform.
An independent research project can be done in one semester, for 3 credits, with advance preparation and supervision by a faculty member. (If you are in the honors program, you are required to complete a year-long 6-credit project.) Early in the semester preceding the term in which you want to do a research project, meet with a few faculty to find out about their research interests and to discuss yours. Then choose one faculty member and work with him or her to plan your independent research. You must submit a proposal to the dean of Arts and Sciences during the semester preceding your research project.
To test initially your interest in actual clinical/counseling work, and your actual tolerance for its challenges and difficulties, you should complete a practicum for academic credit or a non-credit clinical experience such as a summer job or volunteer commitment. The length of this experience, and its depth in terms of responsibility undertaken and learning experienced, depends on your purposes and on constraints of time, money, and related factors. However, we can make some generalizations. A practicum performed in a human-service setting during a fall or spring semester is not worth doing for clinical/counseling interests unless it is at least two full days per week. (This generates up to six practicum credits.) This is because the student must be trained to a basic level of competence before she can be trusted to have actual client contact. In a summer practicum, the minimum is generally four days per week for six or more weeks. These times involve only the time spent in practicum setting and do not include reading and writing assignments and class time. One must balance the benefits of this with the benefits of other classes or experiences. We don’t want to advise more than nine credits if you want to go to graduate school. For more information on gaining a practicum, see the document “Securing Your Practicum” (available in the department office or online at the department website).
MASTER'S OR DOCTORATE?
In clinical psychology and related fields, unlike many disciplines outside psychology, this choice should be made before finishing the bachelor’s degree, since it may not be easy to alter your career path later. Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology are actually less likely to admit applicants with an M.A. in clinical or counseling than applicants with a B.A. or with an M.A. in general-experimental psychology. (This generalization is less true in other areas of psychology, or for Psy.D. programs.)
In general, Master’s-level study takes two years, and doctoral study at least four. Students in Ph.D. clinical and counseling psychology programs must complete the same course and thesis requirements as for a Ph.D. in experimental, plus a one-year internship. Salary, prestige, and job flexibility are greater with a doctorate, but admissions criteria and graduate study are much more rigorous.
Doctoral-level alternatives
Students interested in doctoral-level programs in clinical, counseling, or school psychology should consider only APA-approved (doctoral) programs. In addition, you should select the best courses, buy at least one guidebook (see references), develop a plan to prepare for the GRE’s, and see us early and often for advice. Admission to a Ph.D. clinical program is more difficult to obtain than admission to medical school, and generally requires a GPA of at least 3.5, completion of demanding upper-level courses in psychology as well as outside the major, and GRE (verbal plus quantitative) scores of at least 1200. (GRE verbal and quantitative scores in general correlate with SAT scores in the same two areas.) It is sometimes easier to gain admission into a counseling psychology program than one in clinical. Fortunately, there are alternatives at doctoral and master’s levels.
For a student seriously committed to a Ph.D., but who lacks some qualification for Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology, the M.A. or M.S. in general-experimental psychology is, surprisingly enough, the best stepping stone to a Ph.D. program. This is because for Ph.D. programs it is more important to prove your ability to do rigorous graduate course work and a research project, and that is what master’s-level general-experimental programs do best. This is a pathway, however, only for the student seriously committed to obtaining a doctorate. You will finish the M.A. with skills in research but not in clinical or other highly marketable areas.
The Doctor of Psychology degree (Psy.D.) is an alternative choice for students who are certain that they wish to be clinical practitioners. (Bear in mind, however, that both authors of this booklet entered graduate school planning to be clinical practitioners, and look what we’re doing now!) Psy.D. programs substitute more psychotherapy training for the same time spent on research in a Ph.D. program. The upside is this: admission may be less rigorous, and Psy.D. programs are more likely than others to admit candidates who already have a master’s degree. The downside is this: salary, prestige and "marketability" are less than the Ph.D.; many Psy.D. graduates have recently been unable to find clinical internships and entry level jobs, financial aid is usually much harder to obtain; career choices include only clinical-counseling work, not teaching or research. If you do apply to Psy.D. programs consider only APA-approved programs in a traditional university setting, for reasons of academic quality and financial aid. (See us for horror stories about this.)
Excellent Ph.D. programs in community and school psychology are often less difficult to get into than in clinical or counseling. They offer training that is different from psychotherapy or counseling, but that promotes individual well-being and helps prevent or treat psychological problems. Community and school psychology programs are discussed more thoroughly in the section "Master’s-level alternatives." Table 1 lists some of the doctoral programs in clinical, counseling, community and school psychology attended by our graduates since 1980. For the most recent information on graduate programs attended by BU psychology baccalaureates, see the alumni section of the department website.
Table 1
Doctoral Programs in Clinical, Counseling, Community and School Psychology Attended by B.U. Psychology Graduates
Clinical Psychology: Ph.D.
University of Arkansas
Auburn University
Kent State University
University of North Carolina-Greensboro
North Carolina State University
State University at New York at Binghamton
University of Rhode Island
Clinical Psychology: Psy.D.
Central Michigan University
University of Denver
Fairleigh Dickinson University (Teaneck Campus)
University of Hartford
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Nova University
Counseling Psychology
University of Iowa
Lehigh University
University of Notre Dame
Community Psychology
University of Maryland-Baltimore County
Michigan State University
School Psychology
University of Cincinnati
West Virginia University
Pennsylvania State University
Master’s-level alternatives
Don’t equate professional respect or job satisfaction with a doctorate in psychology. Many more B.U. Psychology graduates hold a master’s degree than a doctorate. In a variety of helping professions a master’s degree is the educational ticket to a satisfying career in mental health, education, and a variety of community agencies. It typically requires two years of graduate study.
It is true that in Pennsylvania and most other populous states, a doctorate is now the prerequisite for licensure and private practice in psychology. But some less urban states still license master’s-level psychologists. In addition, a satisfying career as a therapist, as well as a private practice, can be attained in most states with a master’ s degree in social work (MSW), and in some states (including Pennsylvania) with a master’s degree in counseling (from an accredited program). Finally, private practice does not necessarily offer a secure income, and it can be lonely, depressing work. It seldom serves the truly needy, who usually can’t afford it.
The terminology of training options at the master’s level is especially confusing. We shall reduce the variety of types of programs to five—clinical psychology, community psychology, social work, counseling (in various forms), and school psychology; the last two may be in departments of psychology or education, the middle one in departments or schools of social work or welfare. Other types of programs (generally weaker) also exist. See Dr. Dalton or Dr. Beck if you have questions about a specific program.
Clinical/Counseling Psychology. Training in this area is similar to doctoral-level clinical and counseling psychology but is not as deep or as research-oriented as the Ph.D. Graduates often work in mental health centers, community clinics, psychiatric hospitals, child/family services, and substance abuse facilities, and sometimes in correctional settings. They perform psychological testing, provide group and individual psychotherapy with adults, direct community/rehabilitation programs for clients with chronic mental disorders and sometimes do child and family therapy. Originally, counseling psychology dealt with the adjustment problems of more "normal" individuals and clinical psychology with the more seriously disturbed, but that distinction has been largely lost in practice.
Training includes several classroom courses, including research methods and the core fields of psychology as well as in testing, therapy, and abnormal psychology. There is some practicum work, and often a full-time internship for 4-6 months. An advantage of psychology programs (clinical and community) is that they often, but not always, offer assistantships for financial aid. They prefer full-time students.
Clinical psychology programs at the master’s level look for students with above-average grades (a 3.0 GPA is a rule of thumb, but many exceptions exist). Some require GRE scores, but much below doctoral levels (often 1000 or better, verbal plus quantitative, but again many exceptions exist). A practicum is highly desirable. Candidates are preferred who have taken courses in the principal areas of psychology (see our earlier discussion of this). Writing skills are often important.
Community Psychology. If you are interested in how environments (schools, organizations, communities) can be changed to promote the health or quality of life for their individual members, community psychology is for you. Community psychologists look beyond the individual to change the settings and norms that shape individual lives--for instance, by advocating for legal and social changes to empower women in general, not just counseling individual women whose personal problems often have social roots. Some community-clinical psychologists work for changes at both individual-counseling and community-change levels. Other community psychologists specialize in developing prevention programs, or performing organizational consulting, or applied research.
Community psychologists work in a variety of settings. Clinical-community psychologists pursue clinical work in mental health settings with a broader perspective and may develop prevention programs or consult with other agencies. Community psychologists also work in "alternative" settings--womens’ centers, self-help and voluntary organizations, walk-in clinics--as well as in health and criminal-justice settings. Their skills are broader than clinicians, and more research-oriented than social workers. This broader view, and the social-change values it often involves, is not for every psychology major. But for some, it is a good choice.
Training involves basic course work in the core areas of psychology and in community research. In addition, courses in community psychology theory and practice are required. Clinical courses may be required, optional, or unavailable, depending on the specific program. There is some practicum work, and often a full-time internship of 4-6 months. Some community programs offer a number of assistantships and other types of financial aid. Those that do tend to be for full-time students. Some community programs, particularly near state capitals, serve mainly part-time students who already have jobs and who seek to upgrade their credentials; they offer less aid.
Community psychology programs seek students who have a broader perspective than individual psychotherapy, who like the idea of prevention and social change, and who are creative and assertive enough to pursue careers in roles or settings where traditional clinical psychologists seldom work. Grade-point average, GRE, and undergraduate course work requirements are similar to clinical psychology. A familiarity with the unique approach to community psychology is necessary; it may be gained through course work, practicum, independent reading, and advisement from faculty. See Dr. Dalton for more information.
Social Work. Psychology majors seldom consider social work as a career option; however, in recent years it has become the most popular graduate school alternative. Social workers may hold either bachelor’s or master’s degrees (or occasionally doctorates). Psychology majors tend to think of the difficulties of bachelor’s level social casework when they hear the term "social work." But at the master’s level, social workers can be well-trained to do psychotherapy, and in many states certified to practice independently, in two years of graduate study. For some psychology majors, this career pathway is a good one.
Social workers with an MSW work in many of the same settings as clinical or community psychologists--mental health, community service agencies (both traditional and "alternative"), and child and family services, as well as facilities for the aging and in hospitals and health care. Their duties are somewhat different from psychologists, but the two professions overlap. Both professions perform individual psychotherapy. Social work programs usually offer training in child/family therapy and related services for children which are very high demand areas. This is available only in some clinical psychology programs.
Training in an MSW program usually involves about half-time in classes on campus and half-time in a field setting for two years. This may be either three days per week in classes and two days per week in the field setting or one semester on campus and the next in the field. Part-time study is an option. There often is less emphasis on research methods and more on intervention (clinical therapy or community change) than in psychology.
Master’s-level programs in social work prefer candidates with above-average grades (3.0 is the usual minimum) and with extensive experience (internship or otherwise) in community service settings. Experience in culturally diverse communities and a genuine concern for disadvantaged populations and for social change are very helpful. GRE scores are often not required, and less importance is placed on specific courses in psychology. Some course work in social work or social welfare and a broad background in the social sciences are very helpful. A broad range of life experiences also may be to your benefit.
Some social work graduate programs prefer applicants with bachelor’s degrees in social work (BSW). In addition, in approximately two-thirds of MSW programs, credits for graduate courses may be awarded to BSW’s for courses in the same area that they have taken as undergraduates. Some MSW programs are more interested in psychology majors who wish to "cross over" than others.
A disadvantage of social work relative to psychology is that schools of social work usually admit more students and thus have fewer assistantships (or other forms of financial aid) available per student. However, some MSW programs have helped our graduates with finding paid part-time or full-time positions in community agencies and with corresponding arrangements for part-time study.
A psychology major who is interested in pursuing an MSW should do several things. Take the Introduction to Social Work and Welfare (45.133) course, and either Child Welfare or Family Counseling. Speak with the instructor or another social welfare faculty member about your interests and questions. See your advisor and Dr. Beck or Dr. Dalton to discuss your options, of which social work is only one.
Finally, remember that while here at B.U. sociology and social welfare courses are all in the same department, there are real differences in the perspective between the two disciplines. Marriage and Family, for instance, is a sociology course, not a social welfare one, although it provides helpful background. There is a minor in sociology at B.U., but not in social welfare.
For more information on social work including a listing of all graduate programs and their requirements, see the website for the Council on Social Work Education at http://www.cswe.org/.
Counseling. A word that means everything also means nothing, and that has very nearly become the fate of the term " counseling". Counseling psychology, counselor education, pastoral counseling, guidance counseling, rehabilitation counseling--these are just a few career pathways often abbreviated as counseling. Some counseling programs exist in schools of education and are primarily educational in faculty expertise and in curriculum. Others are in departments of psychology and primarily psychological.
This plethora of meanings has real impact on the B.U. psychology student considering master’s-level study. First, you must sort out what you mean when you think you’re interested in counseling. Second, you must look beyond the title of a program (e.g., counseling psychology) to discover what it will actually teach you. Third, you must consider the perceptions of potential employers. At the master’s level, especially in the mental health settings, employers know what a clinical psychologist or a social worker is, but don’t always know what a counselor is. And if they have an idea, it may not fit the job applicant--a master’s level counseling psychologist may be perceived as a clinical psychologist or as an educationally oriented counselor. These and other factors may make counseling at the master’s level a less desirable choice than clinical psychology or social work. But what’s true for most may not fit you as an individual, and for some of our graduates one of the counseling fields is a good choice. Some good news: Pennsylvania recently joined the growing number of states that license/certify master’s-level counselors, making independent practice of counseling possible (like an MSW or doctoral psychology degree). As of this writing, we are not sure of the impact this law will have. See us for more details.
If you’re interested in counseling, you need to decide if you are more interested in guidance counseling in a school setting, mental health or community counseling in a community agency, or some more specialized form, such as pastoral counseling in a church-related setting, or rehabilitation counseling (usually but not always performed with handicapped/disadvantaged clients).
Guidance counseling in a high school is mostly guidance with less one-to-one counseling than often occurs in a community agency. Guidance counseling in an elementary or middle school setting is more like what many of our students mean when they say "counseling". (That’s why we place practicum students there.) In either case, school guidance counselors emphasize the need (for job security) to be "double-certified". That means being trained and certified both in guidance counseling and in something else-- classroom teaching on one hand, or school psychology in the other. This is possible in some master’s programs (with some extra work) but not in all.
Obtaining a counseling degree to work in a mental health or other community agency creates two obstacles. One is that you often will be competing with jobs for M.A. clinical psychologists and MSW social workers, with degrees and training that are often better known and understood. Another is that you need to make sure that the training program and its faculty provide experience and expertise in the type of community agencies you are interested in, and place their graduates there. If they do, this can be a good choice.
If you desire a more specialized form of counseling, find at least one person in that field and interview them regarding their work and their advice for your education. We can help you best if you have a source inside the field.
Finally, two related fields need to be mentioned. Marriage and family counseling at the master’s level (sometimes also called marital/family therapy) seems appealing to some students. It is often offered by departments of human development. At the master’s level, this has not caught on in Pennsylvania as a separate profession. Marital/family therapy is also practiced by other professions, especially social work. In some other states (e.g., Maryland, Connecticut) it is a separate field with its own certificate requirements.
The Chemical Abuse Counselor certificate (CAC) is sometimes held by staff members in substance "drug and alcohol" abuse settings. It is not an academic degree or a substitute for one, and is based primarily on work experience. For a B.U. psychology graduate, it can be a handy credential if you are committed to substance abuse counseling, but consider it a supplementary certificate and pursue a master’s degree of some sort as well.
Not surprisingly, the nature and requirements of the various types of counseling programs differ greatly. Generally, programs located in psychology departments require more specific psychology courses to have been taken as undergraduates, and will require more research expertise as graduate students. But exceptions exist to virtually every generalization about counseling.
A practicum is very helpful no matter what kind of counseling you are considering, and it does not have to be in the same specific kind of setting as the graduate program.
School Psychology. For those who like kids, are intrigued by psychological tests, and who are at least fairly certain that they would like to work in a school, this is a good choice. But at the master’s level, this is primarily a career in psychoeducational assessment, not longer-term counseling with children.
School psychology blurs two common distinctions. One is the master’s-doctoral distinction. Both degrees are granted in school psychology, but so is an Ed.S. (Educational Specialist) degree that ordinarily takes three years, including an extended (often year-long) internship. Some advisors say that this gives the individual a competitive edge in expertise over M.A.-level school psychologists. Others argue that if you are committing three years, why not four and finish a doctorate.
The second distinction blurred by school psychology is between psychology and education. Some school psychology programs are located in schools of education, others in departments of psychology, but most require some course work in both places. If you are interested in a specific program, find out its location and requirements, but remember that at the master’s level, this is not as important as other factors such as placement of graduates.
Master’s-level school psychologists administer, score and interpret psychological tests, as well as interviewing children and sometimes parents in a comprehensive psychological assessment. They often participate in interdisciplinary team meetings to decide how best to meet any special needs of the tested child, and consult with teachers, guidance counselors, and other professionals.
Entrance requirements for a master’s-level school psychology program in a department of psychology are similar to those for clinical psychology, except that a course in tests and measurements is important. GRE scores may be required, but not always. A practicum in a school setting is very helpful, whether with a school psychologist or a guidance counselor. (This is primarily a career test for you, not an in-depth training experience.) Requirements and financial aid programs in education departments are more variable.
A 1998 survey of psychology graduates by the American Psychological Association found that the average (mid-career) school psychologist with a master’s degree was making $58,000 per year. The average salary for mid-career individuals with a master’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology was $40,000 per year.
Table 2 summarizes the training experiences available for various master’s-level programs. Table 3 provides a list of some of the master’s programs that have been attended by B.U. graduates since 1990. Again, a more current listing of programs attended by BU graduates can be found in the alumni section of the department website.
Table 2
A Comparison of Training Offered in Master’s Programs
Experiences |
Clin. |
Comm. |
MSW |
Coun. |
School |
Psychotherapy/counseling with adults |
Yes |
Maybe |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
Child/family therapy |
Maybe |
Maybe |
Yes |
Maybe |
Maybe |
Psychological testing |
Yes |
No |
No |
Maybe |
Yes |
Organizational/community change, prevention programs |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
Emphases |
|||||
Research |
Mod. |
Mod. |
Low |
Low |
Mod. |
Practicum/Internship |
Mod. |
Mod. |
High |
Mod. |
Mod. |
Social Change, cultural diversity/values |
Low |
High |
High |
Low |
Low |
Note: These guidelines may not be true of every program. See us for help. "Maybe" means available in some programs but not all. "Mod." Means moderate. Emphases refer to their importance at both undergraduate (for admission) and graduate (for completion) levels.
Table 3
Master’s-Level Clinical or Related Programs Attended by Bloomsburg University Psychology Graduates
Clinical Psychology
Fairleigh Dickinson University (Madison Campus)
University of North Carolina--Wilmington
Southern Illinois University
Towson State University
West Chester University
University of West Florida
Montclair State University
Clinical-Community Psychology
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Penn State University--Harrisburg
Mansfield University
University of North Carolina--Charlotte
Counseling
Gonzaga University
Kutztown University
Lehigh University
Marywood University
University of Scranton
Shippensburg University
Temple University
Texas Women’s University
Northeastern University
Millersville University
School Psychology
Alfred University
Bucknell University
University of Cincinnati
James Madison University
Lehigh University
New York University
Temple University
Social Work
Bryn Mawr College
University of Maryland--Baltimore
University of Pennsylvania
University of Pittsburgh
Virginia Commonwealth University
Widener University
Marywood University
Human Development
University of Tennessee
APPLYING TO GRADUATE SCHOOL
Once you have some specific educational and career goals in mind, it is time to find a graduate school that meets your needs. While you should begin thinking in this direction during your freshman year, your search will intensify during the summer and fall semesters the year before you plan to enter graduate school. Almost all programs in clinical areas accept new students to begin in the fall semester. You should begin early as the application process is lengthy and often expensive. Table 4 gives an overview of the time line recommended (see "Further Reading") for doctoral-level applicants. This assumes an application deadline of January and should be modified if deadlines are earlier. Master’s-level programs usually have application deadlines in February or March; therefore, you have a little extra time to complete application requirements.
Table 4
Time Line for Graduate School Planning and Application
Freshman and sophomore years
1. Take 100-200-level psychology courses, especially Basic Statistics and Experimental Methods and Applications.
2. Take a broad range of courses that will strengthen your writing and quantitative skills (including courses in the sciences)
3. Consider a minor.
4. See a Psychology Department member for advisement, at least once a semester.
5. Join the Psychology Association and consider volunteering to help in faculty research.
Junior Year
1. Take 300-level psychology courses.
2. Continue courses in other disciplines that will strengthen writing and quantitative skills (e.g., College Algebra).
3. Plan when to do a Practicum.
4. Plan when to do an independent research project.
5. Plan capstone psychology courses for senior year.
6. Study for the GRE General Test and take practice exams (unless you are certain you will apply to programs that do not require it, e.g. many social work programs).
7. See Psychology Department advisor(s) for help with all this. (NOTE: Many members of the Psychology Department can provide excellent advisement for graduate study in clinically-related fields, not just the clinical psychologists!)
Summer before senior year
1. Take GRE General Test, if required by programs in which you are interested.
2. Take a practicum or clinically-related summer job.
3. Begin choosing the types of programs to which you will apply (e.g., clinical psychology, school psychology, social work).
Early fall of senior year
1. Conduct independent research project. Plan for presentation at an undergraduate research conference (e.g., University of Scranton conference) or psychology conference (e.g., EPA).
2. Take a Practicum (if not done in prior summer).
3. Take capstone psychology course(s).
4. Take GRE Subject Test in Psychology, if required by programs to which you will apply.
5. Finalize choice of type of graduate program. Choose at least 10 programs of that type, with help from an advisor. Write or e-mail for program descriptions, applications, financial aid information.
6. Consult appropriate graduate school guides (see "Further Reading") and see an advisor.
Late fall of senior year (doctoral-level),
Or by February 1 of senior year (master’s level)
1. Choose programs to which you will apply, with help from a faculty advisor. Apply to at least 10 programs if seeking admission to doctoral programs (including some master’s-level fall-back choices). Apply to at least 5 programs if seeking admission to master’s level programs.
2. Write applications for graduate programs. Ask an advisor to review your plans and essay(s).
3. Ask at least 3 teachers/supervisors to write letters of recommendation. Give them at least one month’s notice before the application deadline. Discuss your goals and plans with each person.
February-March of senior year
1. Conduct a Practicum or independent research if not done earlier.
2. If invited to an interview, discuss it with an advisor and practice ahead of time.
April-May of senior year
This is when offers and rejection letters (even for the best) arrive! See your advisor for advice about good news, bad news, and your choices for your future.
Remember: our students have had excellent fortune in graduate admission when they seek and use advisement early and often.
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Gather all relevant information about programs by reading the recommended resources (see"Further Reading"), talking to students and faculty at those universities, and talking to us. Set priorities regarding the desirability of the university’s location, admissions criteria, suitability of research interests, available clinical training sites, clinical versus research emphases, and financial aid.
If you have any interest in a graduate program, write to that school for more information. Consider writing to an individual professor who has similar clinical or research interests. Remember not to use the undergraduate reputation of a university to assess its suitability for your graduate training. There is no best school for clinical training; you are searching for one that meets your needs.
Graduate Record Examination
The GRE’s are an important and sometimes determining factor in a student’s graduate school preparation. Check to see whether the schools in which you are interested require the GRE General and/or Advanced Subject Test. The General Test has Verbal, Quantitative, and Analytical subtests (many schools consider only the Verbal and Quantitative Test scores). It is similar to the SAT. This may give you some indication how you might do or how much you need to prepare. The Advanced Subject test deals specifically with psychology. Our graduates typically do well on it.
You should take the GRE late in your junior year or early in your senior year. A booklet with test information is available in Residence Life Office or online at http://www.gre.org/. Therefore, coordinate your test taking with the deadlines for application of your desired graduate schools. You can take the General and Advanced Psychology test on the same day, but this is not recommended as each is a lengthy and draining test. Although some like to wait until December to take the GRE, we don’t advise it. You can retake each test, however, both scores are sent to the graduate schools.
You should prepare ahead of time for taking the test. Take a practice exam and preparation course if possible (the Psychology Association often offers one). Numerous study guides are available. The Quantitative subtest covers numerous algebraic principles; therefore, either review these or take a course in college algebra immediately preceding taking the test. The Verbal subtest is more difficult to study (or cram) for. It requires an extensive vocabulary knowledge as well familiarity with basic grammar rules. The best way to prepare is to read extensively (not just textbooks) throughout your college career. Finally, the Advanced Subject test covers a wide range of material in psychology. Review a general psychology textbook and/or take the 48.341 course as a TA for General Psychology.
Narrowing Choices
After you have received information from your desired programs (and certainly after getting your GRE scores) you should narrow your choices of desirable graduate schools. If you are serious about doctoral study, we recommend that you apply to at least eight doctoral programs and two master’s-level "back-ups". Realistically assess your chances for getting into a program based on your academic qualifications and the school’s admission requirements (speak to us about this). Consider a three-tiered selection procedure. Apply to one or two "dream" schools that are highly desirable but that you have only a small chance of being accepted. Concentrate your efforts in the group of schools that are competitive but for which you have a realistic chance. Finally, choose some "acceptable" schools that are less competitive and that you are not crazy about but would be willing to attend if necessary. You should have a definite plan about what you will do if you are not accepted to any of the schools you choose; it does happen! Rank the programs in order of preference, and keep the list.
Once you make your program selections, choose the individuals you wish to write your letters of recommendation. Do this early; most professors are swamped with these requests. Contact the reference person at least one month ahead of the deadline. Be sure to choose individuals who know you well enough to write something specific about your qualification. If there is a choice you should waive your right to read your letter of recommendation. Most schools believe that this increases the honesty of the letter.
Provide each person with the appropriate forms as well as stamped, addressed envelopes for each school. Indicate the types of programs to which you are applying and anything you would like to have emphasized for each program. Most graduate schools are looking for letters from your academic professors; however, if you performed well in a related work or practicum experience you might want to get a letter from your supervisor.
You likely will be asked to provide some sort of personal statement about your goals and reasons for choosing a particular program. Try to be honest and realistic in this statement and indicate specifically why you are interested in each program. Be sure to be neat and accurate as programs do take these letters seriously. Diligently proofread your statement for spelling and grammatical errors. Have a friend and one of your professors read it.
During the entire interview process be as organized and methodical as possible. Follow up on your application to ensure that all materials, including GRE scores and letters of recommendation have been received. Make copies of everything that is sent as these materials frequently are lost before they make it to your file.
Graduate schools often make an initial cut of their applicants then invite the finalists for an interview on campus. You should make every effort to attend these interviews. If you absolutely cannot arrange or afford the interview, ask the admissions director if you can substitute an interview by telephone.
Approach the interview very seriously. You should dress relatively formally and conservatively. Before you go on the interview you should research the program thoroughly paying particular attention to faculty and their specialties. Frequently, you will be asked if you have any questions, so have a list prepared before you go.
It is a good idea to role-play the graduate school interview as this can intimidate even the most confident student. Choose a friend or faculty member and role-play responses to a variety of questions. (Click here for a list of common interview questions).
Remember that the interview is also your chance to assess the suitability of the graduate program for your needs. Assertively ask questions and gather all possible information. A good source of vital information is students currently attending that program. You may want to arrange to stay with one of the students while you are at the interview (the price is right!). You definitely should talk to several students about various aspects of the program and determine their level of satisfaction with it. Be wary of a program where all the students are very disgruntled. Revise your preferential ranking of programs after interviewing, if necessary.
Making the Final Selection
Once you have completed the interviews you must wait for schools to contact you for information about your acceptance. See an advisor to help throughout this process! Generally the rejections come to you first, so don’t get discouraged if you have not gotten an early offer of acceptance. It only takes one good offer! (Dr. Dalton got into only one clinical doctoral program.)
If you receive an offer from a school that is not your top choice, let them know that you are very interested in their program and ask for a deadline for your reply. Then call the programs higher on your list and inquire about the status of your application. Do not accept an offer if you are not sure you will attend there (Accepting offers then reneging on them is the type of behavior that will haunt you in the future.)
Be sure to ask about financial aid when making this assessment. Let schools know if this will be a determining factor in your decision. If you have not heard from your top choices during this time, call them and ask about the status of your application.
You may be placed on an alternate list meaning that if the program’s top choices for students do not accept, they will offer admission to you. Do not take this as a rejection as it means you surpass their criteria for admission and they would be happy to have you as a student. Ask how far down you are on the alternate list and what the chances are for them to get to you.
When you finally receive an acceptance from your highest available choice, accept the offer and inform the other schools of your choice. Congratulations!
If you do not receive an acceptance from any of your schools, don’t despair. See one or both of us immediately! We will consider your alternate plan mentioned earlier. Also, there are some programs that do not fill all their allocated slots that might be happy to have you a student. We have contacted some master’s-level programs as late as August and September and gotten students enrolled into a program. You should assess why you did not get accepted and decide whether you want to address any deficiencies. Some students decided to work part-time and take classes in order to try again the following year with an improved application. Some have been accepted to even better programs than they considered the year before. Explore your options with us.
Conclusion
We hope that you find this information useful in helping you obtain your educational and career goals. The decision to pursue graduate study in a clinically-related area is a complex one that depends on the graduate school market as well as individual student needs. The information provided in this manual changes periodically; therefore, we need your help in keeping it up-to-date. Let us know which information was helpful and any gems of wisdom you learned along the way. Keep active in providing information to the psychology website alumni section. We hope to convey this information to B.U. students early in their academic career so that with careful planning and study they can achieve their desired career goals. Good luck and keep us informed on your professional progress.
FURTHER READING
American Psychological Association (updated yearly). Graduate study in psychology and associated fields. Washington, DC: APA. (Doctoral and master’s programs. Use this in conjunctions with an advisor. Available in Psychology Department office, MCHS 2102 or from http://www.apa.org/)
American Psychological Association. (1980). Preparing for graduate study in psychology: Not for seniors only! Washington, DC: APA. (The first book to read, especially about doctoral study. Available from Dr. Dalton, but if you’re serious about doctoral study, buy either this or Keith-Spiegels’ book.)
Keith-Speigel, P. (1990). The complete guide to graduate school admission: Psychology and related fields. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mayne, T., Sayette, M. (1990). Insider’s guide to graduate programs in clinical psychology. New York: Guilford Press. (Doctoral programs only. Best after using other sources. Available from Dr. Dalton or Dr. Beck.)
Helpful Websites:
American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org
Graduate Record Examination: http://www.gre.org
Council on Social Work Education: http://www.cswe.org
BU Psychology Department Website: http://departments.bloomu.edu/psych
Revised 9/00